Irrigated agricultural adaptation to water and climate variability: The economic value of a water portfolio

Journal of Agricultural Economics (Wiley) | December 1st, 2014

Increasing aridity, more frequent and intense drought, and greater degrees of water scarcity create unique challenges for agriculture. In response to these challenges, wh

Increasing aridity, more frequent and intense drought, and greater degrees of water scarcity create unique challenges for agriculture. In response to these challenges, which often manifest themselves as lower and more variable surface water supplies, as well as depleted and degraded ground water supplies, growers tend to seek opportunities to adapt. One option for growers to reduce their exposure to water scarcity and heightened uncertainty is to diversify. Indeed, access to a portfolio of supplies is one way in which water and irrigation districts, as well as individual growers, are responding to the changing landscape of water resource availability. This article evaluates the benefits to irrigated agriculture from having access to multiple sources of water. With farm-level information on 1,900 agricultural parcels across California, we use the hedonic property value method to investigate the extent that growers benefit from having access to multiple sources of water (i.e., a water portfolio). Our results suggest that while lower quality waters, less reliable water, and less water all negatively impact agricultural land values, holding a water portfolio has a positive impact on land values through its role in mitigating the negative aspects of these factors and reducing the sensitivity of agriculture to climate-related factors. From a policy perspective, such results identify a valuable adaptation tool that irrigation districts may consider to help offset the negative impacts of climate change, drought, and population increases on water supply availability and reliability.

Irrigated Agriculture Technologies, Practices, and Implications for Water Scarcity

U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) | November 12th, 2019

Demand for freshwater surpasses the amount naturally available in some areas of the United States. The agriculture sector competes for this limited resource, and withdraw

Demand for freshwater surpasses the amount naturally available in some areas of the United States. The agriculture sector competes for this limited resource, and withdraws and consumes the most freshwater of any user in the nation. GAO was asked to conduct a technology assessment around agricultural water use. This report provides an overview of irrigation technologies and on-farm water conservation practices, factors influencing the adoption of these technologies, and implications of their use for water scarcity. In conducting this assessment, GAO reviewed scientific literature; convened an expert meeting with the assistance of the National Academies; visited farmers, academics, and industry representatives; interviewed officials from federal agencies; modeled water use in an illustrative watershed; and performed a regression analysis on U.S. Department of Agriculture irrigation, crop, and technology data. GAO describes two policy options that federal policymakers could consider relating to irrigation technology and discusses their benefits and challenges.

Irrigation in the Earth system

Nature Portfolio (Springer Nature) | June 20th, 2023

Irrigation in U.S. Agriculture: On-Farm Technologies and Best Management Practices

Congressional Research Service (CRS) | October 17th, 2016

Recent threats to water availability as a result of moderate to exceptional drought in several states have raised questions about agricultural water use and efficiencies

Recent threats to water availability as a result of moderate to exceptional drought in several states have raised questions about agricultural water use and efficiencies across the United States. An understanding of common irrigation technologies and the impacts of best management practices in irrigation may be useful to Congress concerning potential policy responses to this issue. As a major user of water, the agricultural industry’s use of water resources continues to be a focal point of agriculture policy. Additional demands on water supplies, extreme weather events (e.g., prolonged drought), and agricultural market conditions have raised producers’ interest in investing in irrigation systems. Increased pressure on the industry to reduce its water use has also drawn interest in the adoption of irrigation technologies and best management practices (BMPs) as a means of achieving efficiency and potential water savings. The federal government performs several roles in assisting agricultural producers with irrigation practices, including financial assistance, technical assistance, research, and monitoring and reporting. The majority of financial and technical assistance is offered through voluntary conservation programs that target increased irrigation efficiency. In some cases, improvements in irrigation efficiency can increase water consumption because farmers increase the number of irrigated acres or grow more profitable, water-intensive crops. This raises questions about how and where federal funds are allocated, particularly in areas where water shortages are a concern. The use and significance of irrigated agriculture varies widely across the United States. Although policy discussions related to irrigation typically focus on western states—home to roughly 71% of irrigated farms—irrigation is practiced in all 50 states and is growing in the east. Over time, there has been a shift in water resources used for irrigation, with an increasing reliance on groundwater and less on the use of surface water. The type of irrigation system used has also shifted over time—from a gravity, or flood-type of irrigation, to potentially more efficient pressurized sprinkler and drip irrigation systems. Pressure systems account for between 58 to 65% of irrigation systems used in the United States and include applicators such as center pivot, surface drip, slide roll or wheel move, and micro sprinkler. Gravity flow, which includes furrow, and controlled and uncontrolled flooding, accounts for approximately 35 to 42% of irrigation systems in the United States. Irrigation BMPs center around how water is managed on a farm and includes on-farm conveyance, irrigation scheduling, and application methods. Increasingly, precision technologies (e.g., drones, sensor networks, data analytics, etc.) are becoming a common part of many irrigation systems because of their potential to increase efficiencies and reduce costs. The use of irrigation technology and BMPs bring both benefits and costs. The control of water application achieved through irrigation systems can create higher yields and allow the production of higher value crops, while potentially reducing some production costs. The additional cost of installing and maintaining these systems, however, can present a barrier to implementing BMPs. Accounting for variations in the local climate, soil type, water quality, and water availability may also challenge adoption of irrigation technologies and BMPs.

James Groundwater Sustainability Agency Groundwater Sustainability Plan (Revised)

James Groundwater Sustainability Agency (JGSA) | July 22nd, 2022

*Submitted to the Department of Water Resources on July 22, 2022. No date or signature accompany the seal from the preparer at Provost and Pritchard.

*Submitted to the Department of Water Resources on July 22, 2022. No date or signature accompany the seal from the preparer at Provost and Pritchard.

Kings River East GSA Groundwater Sustainability Plan (Revised)

Kings River East Groundwater Sustainability Agency (KREGSA) | July 5th, 2022

LandFlex Program’s Guidelines

California Department of Water Resources (DWR) | December 8th, 2022

LandFlex is a program that will provide $25 million in block grants to local government agencies to grant to farmers who limit agricultural water use. Local government ag

LandFlex is a program that will provide $25 million in block grants to local government agencies to grant to farmers who limit agricultural water use. Local government agencies will work directly with farmers in critically overdrafted (COD) basins to identify lands that would reduce pumping impacts to nearby drinking water wells. Through financial incentives to farmers LandFlex will provide multiple community benefits such as drinking water well relief, groundwater overdraft prevention, and climate resilience. 

Landsat and Water—Case Studies of the Uses and Benefits of Landsat Imagery in Water Resources

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) | March 20th, 2014

Water availability and allocation are issues gaining a great deal of attention, particularly in arid climates. Increases in population growth and recent droughts bring ur

Water availability and allocation are issues gaining a great deal of attention, particularly in arid climates. Increases in population growth and recent droughts bring urgency to measuring and monitoring water use in areas such as the western United States, where the majority of the water has already been allocated.  In the world of water resource management, Landsat has played a key role in providing objective and continuous data for the United States, particularly in the arid west. Water-related benefits of Landsat imagery are also reaped far beyond the United States’ borders in countries such as Chile, Australia, Morocco, Sudan, and Venezuela, which are using Landsat data to make informed decisions regarding natural resource allocation and use. 

Letter from John J. Entsminger, General Manager, Southern Nevada Water Authority, to Debra Haland, Secretary, U.S. Department of Interior

Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA) | August 15th, 2022

Maladaptation to drought: a case report from California, USA

Sustainability Science (Springer) | October 15th, 2015

The interactions between natural water availability and societal water demand and management are complex. In response to gaps in empirical research of the adaptive capaci

The interactions between natural water availability and societal water demand and management are complex. In response to gaps in empirical research of the adaptive capacity of social and environmental systems to climate stresses, we provide an assessment of responses to water scarcity during a multi-year drought in California. In particular, we use Barnett and O’Neill’s (Global Environ Change 20:211–213, 2010) criteria for maladaptation to examine responses in the agricultural and energy sectors to a multi-year (2007–2009) California drought. We conclude that despite evidence in both sectors of resiliency to the impacts of the drought, some of the coping strategies adopted increased the vulnerability of other systems. These other systems include California’s aquatic ecosystems and social groups that rely on those ecosystems for their health or employment; future generations whose resources were drawn down in the near-term, where otherwise those resources would have been available at a later time; and current and future generations who were, or will be, exposed to the effects of increased greenhouse gas emissions. This case study demonstrates that California’s current strategies for dealing with long or severe droughts are less successful than previously thought when short- and long-term impacts are evaluated together. This finding is particularly relevant given projections of more frequent and severe water shortages in the future due to climate change. This study recommends a shift from crisis-driven responses to the development and enactment of long-term mitigation measures that are anticipatory and focus on comprehensive risk reduction.