Bulletin No. 81 Intrusion of Salt Water into Ground Water Basins of Southern Alameda County

California Department of Water Resources (DWR) | December 31st, 1960

Can Los Osos Valley Groundwater Basin Provide a Sustainable Water Supply?

California State University, Monterey Bay (CSUMB) | September 16th, 2010

The aquifers underlying the community of Los Osos in California are impaired by nitrate pollution from septic systems (shallow aquifers) and saltwater intrusion f

The aquifers underlying the community of Los Osos in California are impaired by nitrate pollution from septic systems (shallow aquifers) and saltwater intrusion from overdraft (lower aquifers). The development of a centralized waste water system, now in the final pre- construction stages, is proceeding concurrently with an adjudicated basin planning process involving local water purveyors in an effort to develop a management plan for a sustainable basin and water supply. Development of the wastewater system aimed at protecting the shallow aquifer has highlighted the need for a comprehensive groundwater basin management plan that focuses the County, the local water purveyors, the residents, and resource agencies on a common set of actions to stop seawater intrusion and protect the entire basin. The final basin management plan will be scrutinized and critiqued as a potential model for myriad other hydrologically independent communities that are, or will soon be, undergoing the similar quest for reliable water. Stakeholders in the Los Osos Valley Water Basin have the opportunity to lead coastal California on the difficult path toward sustainable water supply through creative local solutions that do not presume the long-term viability of imported water or desalination. While there are a number of detailed analyses and suggested actions in this report, the overarching conclusions/recommendations include: The saltwater intrusion models used in the draft EIR and technical memoranda (TMs) recently developed for the purveyor basin planning process attempt to balance saltwater intrusion against inputs and outputs to and from the aquifers. The net groundwater extraction amounts simulated in the models (corresponding to the purported safe yields) are considered aggressive (too much extraction) because they do not stabilize, or result in seaward migration, of the saltwater/freshwater interface (toward the northwest). In fact, the TM safe yield may allow the saltwater to move inland, especially if California climate becomes drier, as projected by State Government. Modeling results presented in our report indicate that if rainfall patterns persist as they have in the past, there is a reasonable chance that saltwater intrusion will progress farther, rather than remain stable, under anticipated pumping conditions. Further investigation is recommended to resolve uncertainties associated with the TM safe yields, including permeability of the regional (AT2) aquitard, how the AT2 affects lower aquifer recharge, and whether sufficient recharge will occur to prevent seawater intrusion in the upper aquifer. These uncertainties are under- appreciated in the EIR and TMs. We recommend the development of a “contingency plan” that allows flexible adaptive management to address unintended consequences that may occur following the implementation of the Los Osos Valley Wastewater Plan. Contingency plans identify mission-critical sections of the plan that have uncertainties, recommend monitoring to ascertain progress of the plan, and define remedial actions that will mitigate various unintended consequences, including divergence from, or failure of the plan. Several mission-critical arenas are discussed in the report. Rooftop rainwater harvesting and low impact development (LID) options could produce a substantial amount of water for local irrigation, reducing potable water use, while also augmenting groundwater recharge. Some LID alternatives, e.g., rain gardens and vegetated swales, can also provide attractive low-water using landscape features that may also help Los Osos residents adapt to the potential changes in groundwater levels and soil moisture content resulting from project implementation that may affect landscaping. Both on-site and community LID features will also reduce pollution of surface waters in the area. While the method used to calculate potential basin recharge from rainwater and LID features in this report is inconclusive, it suggests that the benefits of these measures may be considerable. Rainwater harvesting and LID are proven technologies that should be considered on a broad basis in the Los Osos Valley to help balance the basin and adapt to potential impacts from the project. Treatment wetlands can provide economical, efficient waste water treatment systems and/or the means to provide additional treatment, storage, and recharge of the groundwater basin. They also provide habitat and quality of life benefits (open space and passive recreational opportunities, such as hiking trails). Nitrate removal in wetlands has been studied in small scale experiments in Monterey County, has been implemented in large scale applications with positive success. Wetlands to treat surface water and wastewater have been used successfully in many communities around the world. We recommend an emphasis on agricultural exchange to maximize its benefits on seawater intrusion and help balance the basin. Tertiary-treated waste water is safe for irrigation and can reduce groundwater pumping, as well as energy and fertilizer use for farmers, with related costs savings. When well water from farms is exchanged for recycled water, potable water can be used to offset pumping causing seawater intrusion. While it is best to balance the hydrologic budget using resources within the basin, there is also an option to trade agricultural-grade treated water to regional farms in exchange for drinking grade water from wells outside the basin if ample water reserves are developed in the future. The draft Los Osos Valley sustainable water basin management plan, “Achieving a sustainable Los Osos Valley Water Basin: Framework for a 21st century basin management plan” (Wimer 2009) presents realistic, well-supported solutions for addressing the water needs of the Los Osos Community using sustainable, water saving and LID methods while preserving the basin for future use. The plan integrates methods reviewed in this report (rainwater harvesting, LID, and agriculture exchange), with urban reuse and intensive indoor and outdoor conservation to balance the basin and provide flows to sensitive ecosystems, with margins of safety that also address current and future uncertainties. We recommend that the plan is further developed, possibly with the help of water use efficiency expert, and considered for implementation. To answer the question posed by the title--yes, Los Osos can become a model of sustainable water use for coastal California if stakeholders implement reasonable conservation measures to complement an appropriate waste water treatment strategy and an adaptive management plan. The great number of uncertainties in the system makes any plan “experimental.” Given the uncertainties, due diligence will include erring on the side of caution (being conservative, not aggressive, in planned groundwater production), and devising a realistic contingency plan that includes adaptive management strategies. The Advanced Watershed Science and Policy (ENVS 660) graduate course at California State University Monterey Bay produced this report. It presents the results of extensive literature review, synthesis, and new analyses. The breadth of the report spans many of the key water supply issues facing the people of the Los Osos Valley. It provides information that can help this region move toward a sustainable water supply through innovative waste water management and sound conservation measures.

Carpinteria Groundwater Basin Groundwater Sustainability Plan

Carpinteria Groundwater Sustainability Agency | December 1st, 2023

The Basin was originally designated as a low-priority basin by DWR. In 2019, DWR conducted a basin reprioritization process that reclassified the Basin as a high-priority

The Basin was originally designated as a low-priority basin by DWR. In 2019, DWR conducted a basin reprioritization process that reclassified the Basin as a high-priority basin, resulting in the preparation of this Plan pursuant to Section 10720, et. seq., of the State Water Code as required by SGMA.

Central Coast Groundwater: Seawater Intrusion and Other Issues

California Water Foundation | August 4th, 2014

The Central Coast area relies on groundwater for more than 80 percent of its water supplies, a greater percentage than any other region in the state. Over 40 percent of t

The Central Coast area relies on groundwater for more than 80 percent of its water supplies, a greater percentage than any other region in the state. Over 40 percent of the groundwater basins in the Central Coast region were ranked as either “high” or “medium” priority as part of the California Statewide Groundwater Elevation Monitoring (CASGEM) prioritization released in June 2014, indicating that they are among the most threated by present or future increases in groundwater demand. Central Coast groundwater supplies are seriously threatened by over-pumping that causes seawater intrusion, a challenge unique to coastal communities. Seawater intrusion results in saline groundwater that is unsuitable for irrigation or domestic use, directly threatening the Central Coast’s economy, where many high-value, salt-sensitive crops, such as strawberries, are grown. Groundwater basins in the Monterey and Salinas Valley area are in a state of long-term overdraft, resulting in falling groundwater levels, regional seawater intrusion, and reduced groundwater storage. Seawater intrusion reaches more than five miles inland in the Salinas Valley and three miles inland in the Pajaro Valley. In addition to salinity issues, several groundwater contaminants are present in these aquifers, including elevated levels of total dissolved solids, iron, manganese, nitrates, and other trace elements. The Paso Robles groundwater subbasin supplies water for 29 percent of the population and an estimated 40 percent of the agricultural production of San Luis Obispo County. Groundwater levels in the basin have been dropping rapidly in recent years, with many areas experiencing groundwater level declines of more than 70 feet. As a result, many wells have gone dry and groundwater users have been forced to deepen their wells or drill new wells. In July 2013, over 100 rural property owners complained to the San Luis Obispo County Board of Supervisors that their wells were running dry and in August 2013 the Board adopted the “Paso Robles Groundwater Basin Urgency Ordinance” as a temporary action to prevent new pumping from worsening overdraft conditions. Additionally, land surface subsidence has been noted in the Paso Robles area, and the recent rapid groundwater level declines may have triggered additional subsidence in this area. Although groundwater levels in the Oxnard Plain area have been relatively stable or have shown an increasing trend, in the coastal regions this stability is largely due to seawater intrusion and results in water of unusable quality replacing high quality groundwater. Rising groundwater levels in the Las Posas Valley are a result of active management to increase groundwater recharge beneath the Arroyo Las Posas. Seawater intrusion began in the Oxnard Plain area by 1930s and was widespread as early as the 1940s. Changes in groundwater management, including pumping reductions, shifting of pumping locations, construction of the Freeman Diversion, and the operation of the Pumping Trough and Pleasant Valley pipeline systems have significantly reduced seawater intrusion, but seawater intrusion conditions persist. Other contaminants present in the region include nitrates, iron, manganese and sulfate. In addition to causing seawater intrusion, over-pumping also caused irreversible land subsidence ranging from 2 .5 to 5 feet in several areas of the basin. The Central Coast is critically dependent upon groundwater, but this resource is under serious threat in a number of basins. In light of the limitations of existing state policies, the following measures would improve the effectiveness of groundwater planning and support sustainable management of California’s Central Coast’s groundwater resources . Establish a statewide policy to manage groundwater sustainably. Organize and empower local groundwater agencies to manage groundwater subbasins. Require the development and implementation of groundwater sustainability plans by local groundwater agencies. Provide local agencies with technical guidance and financial support from the state. Empower the State to oversee and ensure the implementation of groundwater sustainability plans.

Climate Change and Future Water Availability in the United States, Chapter E of U.S. Geological Survey Integrated Water Availability Assessment—2010–20

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) | January 15th, 2025

The following are the key points of this chapter:  The steady rise in global temperature as a result of human activity is causing changes in Earth’s water cycle.

The following are the key points of this chapter:  The steady rise in global temperature as a result of human activity is causing changes in Earth’s water cycle. The amount of water stored within and moving between vapor, liquid and frozen components of the water cycle is shifting, with significant consequences for water availability. Climatic drivers underlie regional or local changes in water supply and their socioeconomic impacts. Threats to the quantity and quality of water available for humans and ecosystems in North America include increases in drought, aridification, and fire weather; heavy precipitation and flooding; cryosphere decline; rising surface-water temperatures; and saltwater intrusion in coastal areas. An understanding of how changes in the major climatic drivers impact the water cycle and the accurate simulation of impacts in hydrological models are crucial to predicting future water availability and developing adaptation strategies to ensure human and ecosystem water supplies. Companion chapters: U.S. Geological Survey Integrated Water Availability Assessment—2010–20, Chapter A Water Supply in the Conterminous United States, Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico, Water Years 2010–20, Chapter B Status of Water-Quality Conditions in the United States, 2010–20, Chapter C  Water Use Across the Conterminous United States, Water Years 2010–20, Chapter D  Integrated Water Availability in the Conterminous United States, 2010–20, Chapter F 

Delta Salinity Management Workshops 2022 Information Sheet

Delta Stewardship Council (Delta Council) | March 7th, 2022

Effects of Sea‐Level Rise on Ground Water Flow in a Coastal Aquifer System

National Groundwater Association (NGWA) | January 29th, 2007

The effects of sea‐level rise on the depth to the fresh water/salt water interface were simulated by using a density‐dependent, three‐dimensional numerical ground w

The effects of sea‐level rise on the depth to the fresh water/salt water interface were simulated by using a density‐dependent, three‐dimensional numerical ground water flow model for a simplified hypothetical fresh water lens that is similar to shallow, coastal aquifers found along the Atlantic coast of the United States. Simulations of sea‐level rise of 2.65 mm/year from 1929 to 2050 resulted in an increase in water levels relative to a fixed datum, yet a net decrease in water levels relative to the increased sea‐level position. The net decrease in water levels was much greater near a gaining stream than farther from the stream. The difference in the change in water levels is attributed to the dampening effect of the stream on water level changes in response to sea‐level rise. In response to the decreased water level altitudes relative to local sea level, the depth to the fresh water/salt water interface decreased. This reduction in the thickness of the fresh water lens varied throughout the aquifer and was greatly affected by proximity to a ground water fed stream and whether the stream was tidally influenced. Away from the stream, the thickness of the fresh water lens decreased by about 2% from 1929 to 2050, whereas the fresh water lens thickness decreased by about 22% to 31% for the same period near the stream, depending on whether the stream was tidally influenced. The difference in the change in the fresh water/salt water interface position is controlled by the difference in the net decline in water levels relative to local sea level.

Electrical Resistivity Imaging of Seawater Intrusion into the Monterey Bay Aquifer System

National Groundwater Association (NGWA) | June 17th, 2015

We use electrical resistivity tomography to obtain a 6.8‐km electrical resistivity image to a depth of approximately 150 m.b.s.l. along the coast of Monterey Bay. The

We use electrical resistivity tomography to obtain a 6.8‐km electrical resistivity image to a depth of approximately 150 m.b.s.l. along the coast of Monterey Bay. The resulting image is used to determine the subsurface distribution of saltwater‐ and freshwater‐saturated sediments and the geologic controls on fluid distributions in the region. Data acquisition took place over two field seasons in 2011 and 2012. To maximize our ability to image both vertical and horizontal variations in the subsurface, a combination of dipole–dipole, Wenner, Wenner‐gamma, and gradient measurements were made, resulting in a large final dataset of approximately 139,000 data points. The resulting resistivity section extends to a depth of 150 m.b.s.l., and is used, in conjunction with the gamma logs from four coastal monitoring wells to identify four dominant lithologic units. From these data, we are able to infer the existence of a contiguous clay layer in the southern portion of our transect, which prevents downward migration of the saltwater observed in the upper 25 m of the subsurface to the underlying freshwater aquifer. The saltwater and brackish water in the northern portion of the transect introduce the potential for seawater intrusion into the hydraulically connected freshwater aquifer to the south, not just from the ocean, but also laterally from north to south.

Fresh Submarine Groundwater Discharge to the Near‐Global Coast

American Geophysical Union (AGU) | April 24th, 2019

Abstract: The flow of fresh groundwater to the ocean through the coast (fresh submarine groundwater discharge or fresh SGD) plays an important role in global biogeochemic

Abstract: The flow of fresh groundwater to the ocean through the coast (fresh submarine groundwater discharge or fresh SGD) plays an important role in global biogeochemical cycles and coastal water quality. In addition to delivering dissolved elements from land to sea, fresh SGD forms a natural barrier against salinization of coastal aquifers. Here we estimate groundwater discharge rates through the near‐global coast (60°N to 60°S) at high resolution using a water budget approach. We find that tropical coasts export more than 56% of all fresh SGD, while midlatitude arid regions export only 10%. Fresh SGD rates from tectonically active margins (coastlines along tectonic plate boundaries) are also significantly greater than passive margins, where most field studies have been focused. Active margins combine rapid uplift and weathering with high rates of fresh SGD and may therefore host exceptionally large groundwater‐borne solute fluxes to the coast. Plain Language Summary: Fresh groundwater flows from land to sea through coastal rocks and sediment. While the amount of groundwater flow is small compared with rivers, it plays an important role in carrying dissolved chemicals like nutrients to sea, and it helps protect aquifers against salinization. We estimate groundwater flow through the near‐global coast. Tropical regions have more groundwater flow, while dry midlatitudes have less. Dry midlatitude regions are therefore more vulnerable to salinization, which is problematic because these regions are also more likely to depend on groundwater to meet their water needs. Additionally, mountainous coastlines along tectonic plate boundaries have relatively large rates of groundwater discharge and may be associated with higher dissolved chemical fluxes to the coast.

Geohydrologic Framework of Recharge and Seawater Intrusion in the Pajaro Valley

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) | July 17th, 2003

The Pajaro Valley Water Management Agency (PVWMA) was established in 1984 by the State of California as the agency charged with ground-water management in Pajaro Valley (

The Pajaro Valley Water Management Agency (PVWMA) was established in 1984 by the State of California as the agency charged with ground-water management in Pajaro Valley (figs. 1A, B). The PVWMA must deal with issues of both water supply and water quality. Managing water resources for agricultural and municipal users requires maintaining a reliable water supply to meet growing demands while preventing ground-water overdraft and the related degradation of water quality. Important regional water-quality concerns include increased nitrate concentrations and seawater intrusion. To protect the quantity and quality of the ground-water supplies, the PVWMA has implemented a plan to prevent further seawater intrusion. In order to evaluate how these activities can be conducted most effectively, it is necessary to improve the understanding of the hydrogeology and geochemistry of the water resources in the Pajaro Valley.